Abstract

Hypertension, the most significant risk factor for cardiovascular disease, is an increasing contributor to global health burden, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) such as India. While the rates of hypertension awareness, treatment, and control in India have been reported in several studies, the factors associated with these rates are less well-understood. Existing studies are predominantly cross-sectional, and the factors examined are limited. Understanding the predictors associated with these rates, using more rigorous study designs, is crucial for the development of strategies to improve hypertension management. To examine a range of factors associated with hypertension awareness, treatment, and control using both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. Data was derived from a population-based sample of 1,710 participants from Kerala, aged 30-60 years. We examined a comprehensive range of factors, including demographic, behavioral factors, anthropometric, clinical measures, psychosocial factors and healthcare utilization. Multilevel mixed effects logistic regression was used for both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses (repeated measures for all variables across 2 years) to determine the factors associated with awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension. A total of 467 (27.3%) participants had hypertension at baseline. Among those, the rates of awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension were 54.4, 25.5, and 36.4%, respectively. Being male (OR 0.27, 95% CI 0.14-0.53) and consumption of alcohol (OR 0.49, 95% CI 0.31-0.80) were significant predictors of poorly controlled hypertension (longitudinal analysis). Depression (OR 2.04, 95% CI 1.15-3.61) and fair-to-poor self-perceived health status (OR 1.87, 95% CI 1.15-3.04) were associated with increased hypertension awareness, whereas anxiety (OR 1.97, 95% CI 1.04-3.71) was associated with increased hypertension treatment (cross-sectional analysis). Seeking outpatient service in the past 4 weeks was associated with higher awareness (OR 1.09, 95% CI 1.27-2.87), treatment (OR 1.73, 95% CI 1.20-2.50) and control (OR 1.96, 95% CI 1.37-2.80) (longitudinal analysis). Our findings suggest the importance of considering psychosocial factors and better engagement with health services in hypertension management, as well as giving more attention to body fat control and largely male-related behaviors such as alcohol consumption, taking into account of some Indian specific attributes.